β-Amyloid Precursor Protein Mutants Respond to γ-Secretase Modulators

Pathogenic generation of the 42-amino acid variant of the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) by β- and γ-secretase cleavage of the β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) is believed to be causative for Alzheimer disease (AD). Lowering of Aβ₄₂ production by γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) is a hopeful approach toward AD treatment. The mechanism of GSM action is not fully understood. Moreover, whether GSMs target the Aβ domain is controversial. To further our understanding of the mode of action of GSMs and the cleavage mechanism of γ-secretase, we analyzed mutations located at different positions of the APP transmembrane domain around or within the Aβ domain regarding their response to GSMs. We found that Aβ₄₂-increasing familial AD mutations of the γ-secretase cleavage site domain responded robustly to Aβ₄₂-lowering GSMs, especially to the potent compound GSM-1, irrespective of the amount of Aβ₄₂ produced. We thus expect that familial AD patients carrying mutations at the γ-secretase cleavage sites of APP should respond to GSM-based therapeutic approaches. Systematic phenylalanine-scanning mutagenesis of this region revealed a high permissiveness to GSM-1 and demonstrated a complex mechanism of GSM action as other Aβ species (Aβ₄₁, Aβ₃₉) could also be lowered besides Aβ₄₂. Moreover, certain mutations simultaneously increased Aβ₄₂ and the shorter peptide Aβ₃₈, arguing that the proposed precursor-product relationship of these Aβ species is not general. Finally, mutations of residues in the proposed GSM-binding site implicated in Aβ₄₂ generation (Gly-29, Gly-33) and potentially in GSM-binding (Lys-28) were also responsive to GSMs, a finding that may question APP substrate targeting of GSMs.     

Evidence for DNA Damage Checkpoint Activation in Barrett Esophagus

Barrett esophagus is an epithelial metaplasia that predisposes to adenocarcinoma. Better markers of cancer risk are urgently needed to identify those patients who are likely to benefit most from emerging methods of endoscopic ablation. Disease progression is associated with genomic DNA changes (segmental gains, losses, or loss of heterozygosity). Although these changes are not easily assayed directly, we hypothesized that the underlying DNA damage should activate a DNA damage response (DDR), detectable by immunohistochemical (IHC) assays of checkpoint proteins and the resulting replicative phase cell cycle delays. Surgical specimens and endoscopic biopsies (N = 28) were subjected to IHC for the cell cycle markers cyclin A and phosphorylated histone H3 (P-H3), the DDR markers γH2AX and phosphorylated ATM/ATR substrates (P-ATM/ATRsub), and the DNA damage-responsive tumor suppressors p16 and p53. Correlations were made with histologic diagnoses. The fractions of cells that stained for cyclin A, P-H3, and γH2AX increased in parallel in dysplastic tissue, consistent with checkpoint-mediated cell cycle delays. Foci of nuclear γH2AX and P-ATM/ATRsub were demonstrated by standard and confocal immunofluorescence. Staining for p16 was more prevalent in early-stage disease with lower staining for γH2AX and P-H3. Staining for p53 was moderately increased in some early-stage disease and strongly increased in some advanced disease, consistent with checkpoint-mediated induction and mutational inactivation of p53, respectively. We suggest that IHC for DDR-associated markers may help stratify risk of disease progression in Barrett.     

Disruption of the two digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase genes DGD1 and DGD2 in Arabidopsis reveals the existence of an additional enzyme of galactolipid synthesis

Two genes (DGD1 and DGD2) are involved in the synthesis of the chloroplast lipid digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG). The role of DGD2 for galactolipid synthesis was studied by isolating Arabidopsis T-DNA insertional mutant alleles (dgd2-1 and dgd2-2) and generating the double mutant line dgd1 dgd2. Whereas the growth and lipid composition of dgd2 were not affected, only trace amounts of DGDG were found in dgd1 dgd2. The growth and photosynthesis of dgd1 dgd2 were affected more severely compared with those of dgd1, indicating that the residual amount of DGDG in dgd1 is crucial for normal plant development. DGDG synthesis was increased after phosphate deprivation in the wild type, dgd1, and dgd2 but not in dgd1 dgd2. Therefore, DGD1 and DGD2 are involved in DGDG synthesis during phosphate deprivation. DGD2 was localized to the outer side of chloroplast envelope membranes. Like DGD2, heterologously expressed DGD1 uses UDP-galactose for galactosylation. Galactolipid synthesis activity for monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), DGDG, and the unusual oligogalactolipids tri- and tetragalactosyldiacylglycerol was detected in isolated chloroplasts of all mutant lines, including dgd1 dgd2. Because dgd1 and dgd2 carry null mutations, an additional, processive galactolipid synthesis activity independent from DGD1 and DGD2 exists in Arabidopsis. This third activity, which is related to the Arabidopsis galactolipid:galactolipid galactosyltransferase, is localized to chloroplast envelope membranes and is capable of synthesizing DGDG from MGDG in the absence of UDP-galactose in vitro, but it does not contribute to net galactolipid synthesis in planta.     

Flow cytometric screening of aldolase catalytic antibodies

High-throughput screening of cells expressing active catalytic antibody clones by flow cytometry is described. A fluorogenic retro-aldol retro-Michael substrate was designed and synthesized with incorporation of a chloromethyl moiety for intracellular retention. Hybridoma or transfected mammalian cells expressing catalytic antibody molecules could be rapidly isolated.     

Suppression of Drosophila cellular immunity by directed expression of the ExoS toxin GAP domain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

We show here that transgenic Drosophila can be used to decipher the effect of a bacterial toxin on innate immunity and demonstrate the contribution of blood cells in fly resistance to bacterial infection. ExoS is a Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin directly translocated into the host cell cytoplasm through the type III secretion system found in many Gram-negative bacteria. It contains a N-terminal GTPase activating (GAP) domain that prevents cytoskeleton reorganization by Rho family of GTPases in cell culture. Directed expression of the ExoS GAP domain (ExoSGAP) during fly eye morphogenesis inhibited Rac1-, Cdc42- and Rho-dependent signalling, demonstrating for the first time its activity on RhoGTPases in a whole organism. We further showed that fly resistance to P. aeruginosa infections was altered when ExoSGAP was expressed either ubiquitously or in haemocytes, but not when expressed into the fat body, the major source of NF-(kappa)B-dependent anti-microbial peptide synthesis. Fly sensitivity to infection was also observed with Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus strain and was associated to a reduced phagocytosis capacity of ExoSGAP-expressing haemocytes. Our results highlight the major contribution of cellular immunity during the first hours after Drosophila infection by P. aeruginosa, an opportunist pathogen affecting patients with pathologies associated to a reduced leukocyte number.     

An Interactive Network of Elastase,Secretases, and PAR-2 Protein Regulates CXCR1 Receptor Surface Expression on Neutrophils

CXCL8 (IL-8) recruits and activates neutrophils through the G protein-coupled chemokine receptor CXCR1. We showed previously that elastase cleaves CXCR1 and thereby impairs antibacterial host defense. However, the molecular intracellular machinery involved in this process remained undefined. Here we demonstrate by using flow cytometry, confocal microscopy, subcellular fractionation, co-immunoprecipitation, and bioluminescence resonance energy transfer that combined α- and γ-secretase activities are functionally involved in elastase-mediated regulation of CXCR1 surface expression on human neutrophils, whereas matrix metalloproteases are dispensable. We further demonstrate that PAR-2 is stored in mobilizable compartments in neutrophils. Bioluminescence resonance energy transfer and co-immunoprecipitation studies showed that secretases, PAR-2, and CXCR1 colocalize and physically interact in a novel protease/secretase-chemokine receptor network. PAR-2 blocking experiments provided evidence that elastase increased intracellular presenilin-1 expression through PAR-2 signaling. When viewed in combination, these studies establish a novel functional network of elastase, secretases, and PAR-2 that regulate CXCR1 expression on neutrophils. Interfering with this network could lead to novel therapeutic approaches in neutrophilic diseases, such as cystic fibrosis or rheumatoid arthritis.     

Natural Polymorphisms in Tap2 Influence Negative Selection and CD4∶CD8 Lineage Commitment in the Rat

Genetic variation in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) affects CD4∶CD8 lineage commitment and MHC expression. However, the contribution of specific genes in this gene-dense region has not yet been resolved. Nor has it been established whether the same genes regulate MHC expression and T cell selection. Here, we assessed the impact of natural genetic variation on MHC expression and CD4∶CD8 lineage commitment using two genetic models in the rat. First, we mapped Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) associated with variation in MHC class I and II protein expression and the CD4∶CD8 T cell ratio in outbred Heterogeneous Stock rats. We identified 10 QTLs across the genome and found that QTLs for the individual traits colocalized within a region spanning the MHC. To identify the genes underlying these overlapping QTLs, we generated a large panel of MHC-recombinant congenic strains, and refined the QTLs to two adjacent intervals of ∼0.25 Mb in the MHC-I and II regions, respectively. An interaction between these intervals affected MHC class I expression as well as negative selection and lineage commitment of CD8 single-positive (SP) thymocytes. We mapped this effect to the transporter associated with antigen processing 2 (Tap2) in the MHC-II region and the classical MHC class I gene(s) (RT1-A) in the MHC-I region. This interaction was revealed by a recombination between RT1-A and Tap2, which occurred in 0.2% of the rats. Variants of Tap2 have previously been shown to influence the antigenicity of MHC class I molecules by altering the MHC class I ligandome. Our results show that a restricted peptide repertoire on MHC class I molecules leads to reduced negative selection of CD8SP cells. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing how a recombination between natural alleles of genes in the MHC influences lineage commitment of T cells.